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Project Boundaries and Description
The project area consists of the entire town of Bolton, Massachusetts (Figures 1 and 2). It is depicted on the Boston, Massachusetts-Rhode Island-Connecticut, 1:100,000 quadrangle of Massachusetts (USGS 1989) (Figure 3).
Bolton is located in the central eastern section of the state of Massachusetts, in Worcester County. Bolton covers a total area of 51.8 square kilometers (20 square miles). The town is bordered on the west by the towns of Clinton and Lancaster, on the north by the town of Harvard, on the east by the town of Stow, and on the south by the towns of Hudson and Berlin. Bolton is accessed by Interstate 495, which runs in a generally north-south direction through the center of the town. Other access points include State Route 110, which runs through the northwest corner of the town; State Route 117, which runs primarily east-west through the center of the town; and State Route 85, which links Bolton with the town of Hudson on the southeast.
Environmental Context of Worcester County
Bolton is located on the eastern side of the New England Upland section of the New England Physiographic Province (Fenneman 1938:345). This section consists of a plateau or upraised peneplain that is divided by narrow valleys and also harbors occasional monadnocks (Fenneman 1938:358). The upland is typically about 300 to 330 m (1,000 to 1,100 ft) in elevation, with some higher peaks of exceptionally hard rock. The upland thus consists of an eroded plateau, sometimes called the Worcester Plateau, formerly consisting of more irregular terrain, but worn by many hundreds of millions of years of geological forces. The Seaboard Lowland section to the east and the Connecticut Valley section to the west form the borders of the central uplands, both lying for the most part at elevations of less than 60 m (200 ft). Elevations in
Bolton are not as high as the central part of the uplands, as it lies along the eastern down-slope of the uplands, and is bordered on the west and east by the low Nashua River and Assabet River valleys. Elevations in Bolton vary from lows along the larger drainage bottoms of 66-72 m (217-236 ft), to peaks at hilltops of over 180 m (591 ft), including the highest point in the town, on Wataquadock Hill at 201 m (660 ft). Elevations are based on the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (USGS 1979, 1997).
Geology. The bedrock foundation of central Massachusetts consists of bands of igneous and metamorphic rocks, oriented north to south (Johnson and Stachiw 1985:11). The Bolton area is known for its variety of rocks and minerals, a result of the town being underlain by both fine-grained crystalline slate-like rocks and crystalline granitic rocks. The eastern part of the Worcester plateau generally consists of crystalline granitic rocks, while the central part is largely composed of fine-grained metamorphics, such as phyllites and quartzites, and the western part is mostly granites and schists (Johnson and Stachiw 1985:12). Bolton lies at the transition between the central and eastern types of rock.
Soils. Bedrock typology has influenced the development of soils on the plateau, because soils are mostly the product of local bedrock weathering, with fewer areas formed in glacial deposits. However, soils in Bolton include both lowland areas, where soils have formed in floodplains and on outwash plains, and uplands, where soils have formed from bedrock weathering (Taylor and Hotz 1985).
Soils developed in outwash plains and stream deposits are optimal areas for supporting human settlements and cropland, and are expected to have the highest potential to contain archaeological sites. Outwash plains in Bolton are concentrated in the western part of the town along the Nashua drainage, but are also distributed across many of the smaller drainages in the central and eastern parts of the town.
There are several common soil types that are suitable for the establishment of Native American living sites. These soils are either well or excessively drained sandy soils, in the vicinity of a water source. These soils include Merrimack fine sandy loam, Hinckley sandy loam, and Windsor loamy fine sand. Areas suitable for prehistoric occupation range from level to about 15 percent slope.
Merrimack Fine Sandy Loam. This is one of the most prevalent soil types in Bolton. This soil is very deep, and is excessively drained. The soil is associated with glacial outwash plains throughout the town. The soil is well suited to cultivation, including cropland, hay, and pasture (Taylor and Hotz 1985). Merrimack soils are often associated with prehistoric sites where there is adjacent water, which is frequently the case.
Hinckley Sandy Loam. This soil is very deep, and is excessively drained. The soil is associated with glacial outwash plains throughout the town. The soil is well suited to cultivation, including cropland, hay, and pasture (Taylor and Hotz 1985). Hinckley soils are also often associated with prehistoric sites where there is adjacent water.
Windsor Loamy Fine Sand. This soil is very deep, and is excessively drained. The soil includes small areas associated with glacial outwash plains throughout the town. The soil is well suited to cultivation, including cropland, hay, and pasture (Taylor and Hotz 1985). Windsor soils are also often associated with prehistoric sites, where there is adjacent water.
Other well-drained soils are found in the town, but are usually located on slopes derived from glacial till and weathered bedrock. These include large areas of Paxton fine sandy loam, and Canton fine sandy loam. Other soils that are moderately well drained make up substantial sections of the town, and may contain Native American sites. These include Deerfield sandy loam, Sudbury fine sandy loam, and Winooski very fine sandy loam.
Drainage Systems. Bolton is located between the Nashua River and the upper section of the Assabet drainage systems. The Nashua River, and its major tributary, the Still River, both run through the northwestern section of the town. Other tributaries to the Nashua in Bolton include Bowers Brook, Forbush Brook, Runaway Brook, and several unnamed streams. The Nashua River flows northeasterly into New Hampshire, where it enters the Merrimack River. The Assabet River flows in a northeasterly direction, joining the Sudbury River to form the Concord River in Concord. Tributaries to the Assabet include North Brook, Danforth Brook, Sunk Meadow Brook, Great Brook, and several unnamed streams.
In addition to the drainage systems, a number of important freshwater ponds are scattered throughout the town. These are small ponds, some of which have been created by damming of drainages, while others may be of natural origin. The largest ponds in the town are West Pond and Little Pond.
Vegetation. Plant life in Bolton is typical of New England upland locales in general. In areas not altered by urbanization and agriculture, woodlands are the most common habitats. A mixed oak-pine-beech forest is predominant, with numerous other species present in various other stages of forest growth. Almost all forested lands are secondary, consisting of white pine, red and black oak, beech, hemlock, white and gray birch, and red and sugar maples. Younger forests contain more birch and pine, occasional aspen, and fewer oaks and hemlocks. These shade-adapted species are more predominant in forests over thirty to forty years in age. Poorly drained locales, not as common in the uplands as in other sections of the Northeast, harbor more water-adapted species such as red maples, cedars, and numerous types of undergrowth.
Fauna. Bolton harbors a variety of habitat types, that in turn support a wide array of animal species that were important to the Native American communities, colonists and later inhabitants of Bolton. Woodlands are the most common habitat in the interior regions of New England, occupying much of Bolton. Wetlands are the second major habitat type present in the town.
Wetlands represent the most vital habitat for animal species in the interior regions. River otters (Lutra candensis) and muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) utilize interior waterways, and it is reported that beaver (Castor canadensis) were once found here, though not in the same numbers as in more dense hardwood forests. Alewives or freshwater herring (Alosa pseudoharengus), pickerel (genus Esox), and eels are present in ponds and streams, as are painted, musk, spotted, and box turtles (genus Terrapene). Numerous bird species wade and fish in interior wetlands, including bitterns (genus Boaurus), herons (family Ardeidae), egrets, ducks (genus Anas, Aythya and others), and osprey (Pandion haliaetus). Bullfrogs (genus Rana) and several toad species are
present as well.
Woodlands provide the least diverse habitat in New England. However, many animals in the forest were among the most important for the area=s Native inhabitants. The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the only big game known to have frequented the Worcester plateau, although black bear (Ursus americanus) were hunted here for their furs. Porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum), fox (Vulpes vulpes, Urocyon cinereoargenteus), raccoons (Procyon lotor), squirrels (Sciuris carolinensis, Tamiasciuris hunsonicus), weasels (Mustela sp.) and three species of rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus, Sylvilagus transitionalis, and Lepus americanus) were important food and clothing sources, as was the wolf (Canis lupus), which is no longer present. Recently, coyote (Canis
latrans) have inhabited the region and are doing well. Woodland birds were used for food and their feathers, including the once common wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and heath hen (Tympanuchus cupido), quail, owls, eagles, crows, and hawks (genus Accipiter, Buteo, Falco).
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